Geotechnical Engineering Online Library

Deep underground excavations within hard rocks can result in damage to the surrounding rock mass mostly due to redistribution of stresses. Especially within rock masses with non-persistent joints, the role of the pre-existing joints in the damage evolution around the underground opening is of critical importance as they govern the fracturing mechanisms and influence the brittle responses of these hard rock masses under highly anisotropic in situ stresses. In this study, the main focus is the impact of joint network geometry, joint strength and applied field stresses on the rock mass behaviours and the evolution of excavation induced damage due to the loss of confinement as a tunnel face advances. Analysis of such a phenomenon was conducted using the finite-discrete element method (FDEM). The numerical model is initially calibrated in order to match the behaviour of the fracture-free, massive Lac du Bonnet granite during the excavation of the Underground Research Laboratory (URL) Test Tunnel, Canada. The influence of the pre-existing joints on the rock mass response during excavation is investigated by integrating discrete fracture networks (DFNs) of various characteristics into the numerical models under varying in situ stresses. The numerical results obtained highlight the significance of the pre-existing joints on the reduction of in situ rock mass strength and its capacity for extension with both factors controlling the brittle response of the material. Furthermore, the impact of spatial distribution of natural joints on the stability of an underground excavation is discussed, as well as the potentially minor influence of joint strength on the stress induced damage within joint systems of a non-persistent nature under specific conditions. Additionally, the in situ stress-joint network interaction is examined, revealing the complex fracturing mechanisms that may lead to uncontrolled fracture propagation that compromises the overall stability of an underground excavation.

The main objective of this paper is to examine the influence of the applied confining stress on the rock mass modulus of moderately jointed rocks (well interlocked undisturbed rock mass with blocks formed by three or less intersecting joints). A synthetic rock mass modelling (SRM) approach is employed to determine the mechanical properties of the rock mass. In this approach, the intact body of rock is represented by the discrete element method (DEM)-Voronoi grains with the ability of simulating the initiation and propagation of microcracks within the intact part of the model. The geometry of the pre-existing joints is generated by employing discrete fracture network (DFN) modelling based on field joint data collected from the Brockville Tunnel using LiDAR scanning. The geometrical characteristics of the simulated joints at a representative sample size are first validated against the field data, and then used to measure the rock quality designation (RQD), joint spacing, areal fracture intensity (P21), and block volumes. These geometrical quantities are used to quantitatively determine a representative range of the geological strength index (GSI). The results show that estimating the GSI using the RQD tends to make a closer estimate of the degree of blockiness that leads to GSI values corresponding to those obtained from direct visual observations of the rock mass conditions in the field. The use of joint spacing and block volume in order to quantify the GSI value range for the studied rock mass suggests a lower range compared to that evaluated in situ. Based on numerical modelling results and laboratory data of rock testing reported in the literature, a semi-empirical equation is proposed that relates the rock mass modulus to confinement as a function of the areal fracture intensity and joint stiffness.

With the scale and cost of geotechnical engineering projects increasing rapidly over the past few decades, there is a clear need for the careful consideration of calculated risks in design. While risk is typically dealt with subjectively through the use of conservative design parameters, with the advent of reliability-based methods, this no longer needs to be the case. Instead, a quantitative risk approach can be considered that incorporates uncertainty in ground conditions directly into the design process to determine the variable ground response and support loads. This allows for the optimization of support on the basis of both worker safety and economic risk. This paper presents the application of such an approach to review the design of the initial lining system along a section of the Driskos twin tunnels as part of the Egnatia Odos highway in northern Greece. Along this section of tunnel, weak rock masses were encountered as well as high in situ stress conditions, which led to excessive deformations and failure of the as built temporary support. Monitoring data were used to validate the rock mass parameters selected in this area and a risk approach was used to determine, in hindsight, the most appropriate support category with respect to the cost of installation and expected cost of failure. Different construction sequences were also considered in the context of both convenience and risk cost.

A grain-based distinct element model featuring three-dimensional (3D) Voronoi tessellations (random poly-crystals) is proposed for simulation of crack damage development in brittle rocks. The grain boundaries in poly-crystal structure produced by Voronoi tessellations can represent flaws in intact rock and allow for numerical replication of crack damage progression through initiation and propagation of micro-fractures along grain boundaries. The Voronoi modelling scheme has been used widely in the past for brittle fracture simulation of rock materials. However the difficulty of generating 3D Voronoi models has limited its application to two-dimensional (2D) codes. The proposed approach is implemented in Neper, an open-source engine for generation of 3D Voronoi grains, to generate block geometry files that can be read directly into 3DEC. A series of Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) tests are simulated in 3DEC to verify the proposed methodology for 3D simulation of brittle fractures and to investigate the relationship between each micro-parameter and the model's macro-response. The possibility of numerical replication of the classical U-shape strength curve for anisotropic rocks is also investigated in numerical UCS tests by using complex-shaped (elongated) grains that are cemented to one another along their adjoining sides. A micro-parameter calibration procedure is established for 3D Voronoi models for accurate replication of the mechanical behaviour of isotropic and anisotropic (containing a fabric) rocks.

Due to advances in numerical modelling, it is possible to capture complex support-ground interaction in two dimensions and three dimensions for mechanical analysis of complex tunnel support systems, although such analysis may still be too complex for routine design calculations. One such system is the forepole element, installed within the umbrella arch temporary support system for tunnels, which warrants such support measures. A review of engineering literature illustrates that a lack of design standards exists regarding the use of forepole elements. Therefore, when designing such support, designers must employ complex numerical models combined with engineering judgement. With reference to past developments by others and new investigations conducted by the authors on the Driskos tunnel in Greece and the Istanbul metro, this paper illustrates how advanced numerical modelling tools can facilitate understanding of the influences of design parameters associated with the use of forepole elements. In addition, this paper highlights the complexity of the ground-support interaction when simulated with two-dimensional (2D) finite element software using a homogenous reinforced region, and three-dimensional (3D) finite difference software using structural elements. This paper further illustrates sequential optimisation of two design parameters (spacing and overlap) using numerical modelling. With regard to capturing system behaviour in the region between forepoles for the purpose of dimensioning spacing, this paper employs three distinctive advanced numerical models: particle codes, continuous finite element models with joint set and Voronoi blocks. Finally, to capture the behaviour/failure ahead of the tunnel face (overlap parameter), 2D axisymmetric models are employed. Finally, conclusions of 2D and 3D numerical assessment on the Driskos tunnel are drawn. The data enriched case study is examined to determine an optimum design, based on the proposed optimisation of design parameters, of forepole elements related to the site-specific considerations.

With respect to constitutive models for continuum modeling applications, the post-yield domain remains the area of greatest uncertainty. Recent studies based on laboratory testing have led to the development of a number of models for brittle rock dilation, which account for both the plastic shear strain and confining stress dependencies of this phenomenon. Although these models are useful in providing an improved understanding of how dilatancy evolves during a compression test, there has been relatively little work performed examining their validity for modeling brittle rock yield in situ. In this study, different constitutive models for rock dilation are reviewed and then tested, in the context of a number of case studies, using a continuum finite-difference approach (FLAC). The uncertainty associated with the modeling of brittle fracture localization is addressed, and the overall ability of mobilized dilation models to replicate in situ deformation measurements and yield patterns is evaluated.